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<meta name="description" content="The underlying and often unexamined assumption for the benefits of automation is the notion that computers/machines are better at some tasks, and humans are better at a different, non-overlapping set of tasks. Historically this has been characterized as HABA-MABA (Humans are Better at; Machines are ">
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<span class>The underlying and often unexamined assumption for the benefits of automation is the notion that computers/machines are better at some tasks, and humans are better at a different, non-overlapping set of tasks. Historically this has been characterized as HABA-MABA (Humans are Better at; Machines are Better at) or the Fitts list, based on the work of Paul Fitts, a psychologist and researcher at the Ohio State University in the early to mid 1900s.</span><!---->
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<span class>More recently, this has been described in human factors research as “functional allocation by substitution” (Hollnagel, 1999; Dekker and Woods, 2002), promoting the idea that we can simply substitute machines for people. This myth relies on the belief that people and computers have fixed strengths and weaknesses, and therefore all we need to do is give separate tasks to each according to their strengths.</span><!---->
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<span class>The Fitts List from Human Engineering for an Effective Air Navigation and Traffic Control System, National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C., 1951.</span><!---->
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<span class>We often proceed with designing automated systems (e.g. CI/CD deployment pipelines, load balancing) without examining a number of consequences of this approach. </span><!---->
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<blockquote class="w-auto"><span class>Where automation is introduced, new human roles emerge.</span><!----></blockquote>
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<span class>Dekker and Woods identify a number of consequences of this approach in their 2002 paper:</span><!---->
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<span class>
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<li><span class>Designers of automation tend to imagine that the desired outcomes of automation (e.g. lower workload, higher accuracy) and only those desired outcomes will occur. In software systems, you’ll see examples of this where we expect something like CI/CD pipeline automation to “reduce the number of errors that can take place in the many repetitive steps of CI and CD.” But everyone has experienced an erroneous config getting pushed out via that very same pipeline and havoc ensuing.</span><!----></li>
<li><span class>Automation increases the need for humans to deal with the fact that it does not have access to all real-world parameters for accurate problem solving in all contexts, and may in fact make it harder for humans to directly impact the system in the ways they want when they need to solve problems or troubleshoot incidents (Billings 1996; Sarter and Woods 19974). We don’t tend to have app-specific dashboards that surface the internal state of programs, e.g. what does the automated process think the state of the world is, what is it trying to do, etc. This kind of view into the system is particularly important when dealing with automation that acts independently, running autonomously all the time (load balancers, orchestration systems), as opposed to automation that is triggered by humans to do a thing at a specific time, such as logging observations and generating reports.</span><!----></li>
<li><span class>Allocating aspects of the system to automation don’t necessarily absorb that function without other unintended consequences, instead it creates new categories or functions that humans must take on, such as figuring out where to find information about what the automation is doing. Automation transforms people’s work and forces them to adapt in novel and unexpected ways. If you’ve ever not known which dashboard to check in order to understand what’s happening, or you have to dig through logs vainly hoping it will give you a clue, you’re familiar with this phenomenon.</span><!----></li>
<li><span class>Lastly, taking advantage of computers’ strengths for automation does not necessarily replace human weaknesses. It often creates new human weaknesses or requires the development of new strengths, often in unanticipated ways (Bainbridge 1983). This can often lead to pockets or silos of expertise, such that when Amy the Kafka wizard isn’t around, no one else knows how to figure out what’s going wrong or why.</span><!----></li>
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<span class>The last of these points is one of the key “Ironies of Automation” identified by Lisanne Bainbridge in her </span><span class><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/redir/redirect?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww%2Ecomplexcognition%2Eco%2Euk%2F2021%2F06%2Fironies-of-automation%2Ehtml&amp;urlhash=ny0M&amp;trk=article-ssr-frontend-pulse_little-text-block" target="_blank" data-tracking-control-name="article-ssr-frontend-pulse_little-text-block" data-tracking-will-navigate data-test-link>influential 1983 paper<!----></a></span><span class>, which I'll cover in my next post. </span><!---->
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Antonia O.
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7 months ago
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<span class>(If this kind of material intrigues you, I recommend checking out the newly-formed </span><span class><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/resilience-in-software-foundation?trk=article-ssr-frontend-pulse_little-text-block" target="_blank" data-tracking-control-name="article-ssr-frontend-pulse_little-text-block" data-tracking-will-navigate data-test-link>Resilience in Software Foundation<!----></a></span><span class>. It notably has a very active Slack group of folks discussing just these kinds of topics.)</span><!---->
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<h3><span class>References</span><!----></h3>
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<span class>Bainbridge, L. (1983). The Ironies of Automation. Automatica, 19, 775-779. (Conference proceedings).</span><!---->
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<span class>Hollnagel, E. (1999). 'From function allocation to function congruence” In Dekker, S., and Hollnagel, E., eds, Coping with Computers in the Cockpit. Ashgate, London.</span><!---->
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<span class>Sarter, Nadine &amp; Woods, David &amp; Billings, C. (1997). Automation surprises. Chapter from the book Handbook of Human Factors and Ergonomics, John Wiley and Sons, (pp.1926-1943).</span><!---->
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<span class>Dekker, S. &amp; Woods, D. (2002) MABA-MABA or Abracadabra? Progress on Human–Automation Co-ordination. Cognition Tech Work 4, 240–244.</span><!---->
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<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
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<button aria-label="العربية (Arabic)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
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<button aria-label="Ελληνικά (Greek)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
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<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
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<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
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<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
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<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
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<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="हिंदी (Hindi)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-hi_IN" data-locale="hi_IN" role="menuitem" lang="hi_IN">
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<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
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Magyar (Hungarian)
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<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-in_ID" data-locale="in_ID" role="menuitem" lang="in_ID">
Bahasa Indonesia (Indonesian)
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</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Italiano (Italian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-it_IT" data-locale="it_IT" role="menuitem" lang="it_IT">
Italiano (Italian)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="עברית (Hebrew)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-iw_IL" data-locale="iw_IL" role="menuitem" lang="iw_IL">
עברית (Hebrew)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="日本語 (Japanese)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-ja_JP" data-locale="ja_JP" role="menuitem" lang="ja_JP">
日本語 (Japanese)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="한국어 (Korean)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-ko_KR" data-locale="ko_KR" role="menuitem" lang="ko_KR">
한국어 (Korean)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="मराठी (Marathi)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-mr_IN" data-locale="mr_IN" role="menuitem" lang="mr_IN">
मराठी (Marathi)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Bahasa Malaysia (Malay)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-ms_MY" data-locale="ms_MY" role="menuitem" lang="ms_MY">
Bahasa Malaysia (Malay)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Nederlands (Dutch)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-nl_NL" data-locale="nl_NL" role="menuitem" lang="nl_NL">
Nederlands (Dutch)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Norsk (Norwegian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-no_NO" data-locale="no_NO" role="menuitem" lang="no_NO">
Norsk (Norwegian)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Punjabi)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-pa_IN" data-locale="pa_IN" role="menuitem" lang="pa_IN">
ਪੰਜਾਬੀ (Punjabi)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Polski (Polish)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-pl_PL" data-locale="pl_PL" role="menuitem" lang="pl_PL">
Polski (Polish)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Português (Portuguese)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-pt_BR" data-locale="pt_BR" role="menuitem" lang="pt_BR">
Português (Portuguese)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Română (Romanian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-ro_RO" data-locale="ro_RO" role="menuitem" lang="ro_RO">
Română (Romanian)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Русский (Russian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-ru_RU" data-locale="ru_RU" role="menuitem" lang="ru_RU">
Русский (Russian)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Svenska (Swedish)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-sv_SE" data-locale="sv_SE" role="menuitem" lang="sv_SE">
Svenska (Swedish)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="తెలుగు (Telugu)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-te_IN" data-locale="te_IN" role="menuitem" lang="te_IN">
తెలుగు (Telugu)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="ภาษาไทย (Thai)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-th_TH" data-locale="th_TH" role="menuitem" lang="th_TH">
ภาษาไทย (Thai)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Tagalog (Tagalog)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-tl_PH" data-locale="tl_PH" role="menuitem" lang="tl_PH">
Tagalog (Tagalog)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Türkçe (Turkish)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-tr_TR" data-locale="tr_TR" role="menuitem" lang="tr_TR">
Türkçe (Turkish)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Українська (Ukrainian)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-uk_UA" data-locale="uk_UA" role="menuitem" lang="uk_UA">
Українська (Ukrainian)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese)" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-vi_VN" data-locale="vi_VN" role="menuitem" lang="vi_VN">
Tiếng Việt (Vietnamese)
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="简体中文 (Chinese (Simplified))" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-zh_CN" data-locale="zh_CN" role="menuitem" lang="zh_CN">
简体中文 (Chinese (Simplified))
</button>
</li>
<li class="language-selector__item" role="presentation">
<!-- Adding aria-label to both the li and the button because screen reader focus goes to button on desktop and li on mobile-->
<button aria-label="正體中文 (Chinese (Traditional))" class="font-sans text-xs link block py-[5px] px-2 w-full hover:cursor-pointer hover:bg-color-action hover:text-color-text-on-dark focus:bg-color-action focus:text-color-text-on-dark
language-selector__link !font-regular" data-tracking-control-name="language-selector-zh_TW" data-locale="zh_TW" role="menuitem" lang="zh_TW">
正體中文 (Chinese (Traditional))
</button>
</li>
<!---->
</ul>
<button class="language-selector__button select-none relative pr-2 font-sans text-xs font-bold text-color-text-low-emphasis hover:text-color-link-hover hover:cursor-pointer focus:text-color-link-focus focus:outline-dotted focus:outline-1" aria-expanded="false" data-tracking-control-name="footer-lang-dropdown_trigger">
<span class="language-selector__label-text mr-0.5 break-words">
Language
</span>
<icon class="language-selector__label-chevron w-2 h-2 absolute top-0 right-0" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/cyolgscd0imw2ldqppkrb84vo"></icon>
</button>
</div>
</li>
</ul>
<!----> </footer>
<div id="toasts" class="toasts fixed z-8 babybear:right-4 mamabear:right-4 papabear:min-h-[96px] invisible
top:auto bottom-4 left-4 papabear:w-[400px]
toasts--bottom" type="bottom">
<template id="toast-template">
<div class="toast container-raised flex
toast--bottom
transition ease-accelerate duration-xxslow
" data-id="toast">
<div class="toast__message flex flex-1 babybear:items-center mamabear:items-center papabear:items-start py-2 px-1.5" data-id="toast__message" role="alert" tabindex="-1">
<div class="toast__message-content-container" data-id="toast__message-content-container">
<p class="toast__message-content font-sans text-sm opacity-90 inline babybear:self-center mamabear:self-center papabear:self-start" data-id="toast__message-content"></p>
</div>
</div>
<button class="toast__dismiss-btn cursor-pointer babybear:self-center mamabear:self-center papabear:self-start pt-3 pb-2 papabear:py-2 pl-0.5 pr-0" data-id="toast__dismiss-btn" aria-label="Close">
<svg width="24" height="24" class="fill-color-icon"><path d="M13 4.32 9.31 8 13 11.69 11.69 13 8 9.31 4.31 13 3 11.69 6.69 8 3 4.31 4.31 3 8 6.69 11.68 3Z"></path></svg>
</button>
</div>
</template>
<template id="toast-icon-caution">
<icon class="text-color-icon-caution toast__icon w-3 h-3 shrink-0 mr-2" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/bk9xca6x9l1fga1tbzame3i3l"></icon>
</template>
<template id="toast-icon-error">
<icon class="text-color-icon-negative toast__icon w-3 h-3 shrink-0 mr-2" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/8c0098stai8lcqypn95r47dew"></icon>
</template>
<template id="toast-icon-gdpr">
<icon class="text-color-icon-neutral toast__icon w-3 h-3 shrink-0 mr-2" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/a9phzx7id2abubo45lgookfd"></icon>
</template>
<template id="toast-icon-notify">
<icon class="text-color-icon-neutral toast__icon w-3 h-3 shrink-0 mr-2" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/4xg53nt8deu1y7tb1t3km8tfh"></icon>
</template>
<template id="toast-icon-success">
<icon class="text-color-icon-positive toast__icon w-3 h-3 shrink-0 mr-2" data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/9zhm3eh2dq7vh2muo8xnfikxh"></icon>
</template>
<template id="toast-cta">
<a class="toast__cta cta-link font-medium ml-0.5 text-sm text-inherit inline" target="_blank"></a>
</template>
</div>
<script src="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/dtrv9swzghlxpyzfyk2gsgbur" async></script>
<!---->
<script src="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/7t9tmk2nhc9brs266st08xe1t" async defer></script>
<script data-delayed-url="https://static.licdn.com/aero-v1/sc/h/985sqoiudwdfnuemt74raqc27" data-module-id="media-player"></script>
<!----><!---->
</body>
</html>