489 lines
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<title data-rh="true">How to Handle Hot Shard Problem? - by Sid</title>
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<meta data-rh="true" name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"/><meta data-rh="true" property="og:type" content="article"/><meta data-rh="true" property="og:title" content="How to Handle Hot Shard Problem?"/><meta data-rh="true" name="twitter:title" content="How to Handle Hot Shard Problem?"/><meta data-rh="true" name="description" content="Understanding Different Approaches to Address Hot Key/Partition Problem"/><meta data-rh="true" property="og:description" content="Understanding Different Approaches to Address Hot Key/Partition Problem"/><meta data-rh="true" name="twitter:description" content="Understanding Different Approaches to Address Hot Key/Partition Problem"/><meta data-rh="true" property="og:image" content="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!nz2h!,w_1200,h_675,c_fill,f_jpg,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep,g_auto/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6149576c-c3f3-4105-b091-5d4310d9359f_1456x1048.png"/><meta data-rh="true" name="twitter:image" content="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!4tdN!,f_auto,q_auto:best,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fscalablethread.substack.com%2Fapi%2Fv1%2Fpost_preview%2F154310217%2Ftwitter.jpg%3Fversion%3D4"/><meta data-rh="true" name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/><meta data-rh="true" property="article:modified_time" content="2025-01-10T22:31:14.195Z"/>
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17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg><div class="label">7</div></button></div><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft post-ufi-button style-button has-label with-border"><div class="label">Share</div></button></div></div></div></div><div class="visibility-check"></div><div><div class="dt-post-body"><div class="available-content"><div dir="auto" class="body markup"><h2 class="header-anchor-post">What is Sharding?<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§what-is-sharding" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/what-is-sharding" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h2><p>Software applications with growing data eventually reach a point where they start experiencing memory, storage, or network limitations, which impact the overall performance and availability of the system. The data no longer fits on the existing node(s). To overcome these limitations, data must be moved to a bigger machine (monolith) or split into chunks and distributed across multiple machines/shards (sharding). The goal with sharding is to make sure data is distributed across enough machines/shards to avoid any resource constraints that could impact the performance of the data operations.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM" class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img can-restack"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"/><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png" width="1456" height="1029" data-attrs="{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/fa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":1029,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":245119,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":false,"topImage":true,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}" alt srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" fetchpriority="high" class="sizing-normal"/></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fig. Sharding</figcaption></figure></div><h2 class="header-anchor-post">What is Hot Shard Problem?<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§what-is-hot-shard-problem" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/what-is-hot-shard-problem" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h2><p><span>Once data is sharded to multiple nodes, there can be scenarios such as </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/how-to-handle-sudden-bursts-of-traffic">thundering herd problem</a><span> or co-location of high throughput accounts, where most read or write requests are on the same shard. This can lead to the following situations:</span></p><ul><li><p><strong>Memory Saturation: </strong><span>The impacted shard will run out of RAM to hold the warmed data. To address this, RAM will start paging the data in the memory to the disk. Reading that data will require pulling those pages back from the disk to the memory. This to-and-fro from the memory to the disk and vice versa will impact the overall read and write performance of the shard, which will end up creating a backlog of requests or, even worse, making the shard unresponsive.</span></p></li><li><p><strong>CPU Saturation: </strong><span>If the read or write queries are compute-intensive, there may be a backlog of requests as the CPU needs time to complete a single query. In a single-threaded system, it may even end up spending more time on context switching between different tasks than on the tasks themselves.</span></p></li><li><p><strong>Network Saturation: </strong><span>A node's bandwidth is also a limited resource. It can be exhausted if the amount of data requested from the node exceeds its network bandwidth capacity.</span></p></li></ul><p><span>This scenario of a shard's resource saturation resulting in a backlog of requests is often referred to as </span><em>a Hot Shard or a Hot Partition </em><span>or </span><em>a Hot Key Problem.</em></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM" class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img can-restack"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"/><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png" width="1456" height="994" data-attrs="{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":994,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":163142,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":false,"topImage":false,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}" alt srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" class="sizing-normal"/></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fig. Hot Shard Problem</figcaption></figure></div><h2 class="header-anchor-post">How to Handle the Situation?<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§how-to-handle-the-situation" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/how-to-handle-the-situation" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h2><p><span>Some of the approaches to handle the </span><em>Hot Shard Problem:</em></p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Scale Vertically<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§scale-vertically" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/scale-vertically" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p>One obvious solution is to increase the node's size by allocating more resources to it. This vertical scaling may not prove to be an ideal solution in the long term, but it can help mitigate the problem.</p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Use Read Replicas or Cache<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§use-read-replicas-or-cache" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/use-read-replicas-or-cache" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p><span>In a scenario where the hot sharding issue is caused by the read queries, using a </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147731225/cache-eviction-strategies">cache</a><span> may be helpful in a scenario where the query response doesn't change. In situations where the cache doesn't help, and all reads and writes are being served through the primary node, having separate</span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/single-leader-multi-leader-and-leaderless"> read replicas</a><span> for the primary node will free up the primary node by distributing the read load across read replicas. This approach may or may not experience eventual consistency based on the</span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/146489166/consistency-and-consistency-model"> consistency model</a><span> applied to the system.</span></p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM" class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img can-restack"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"/><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png" width="1456" height="1226" data-attrs="{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":1226,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":222311,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":true,"topImage":false,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}" alt srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy" class="sizing-normal"/></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fig. Use read replicas to read</figcaption></figure></div><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Use a Large Number of Nodes from the Start<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§use-a-large-number-of-nodes-from-the-start" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/use-a-large-number-of-nodes-from-the-start" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p>This solution may not last longer if the application is experiencing exponential growth. Allocating a large number of extra nodes at the start may also prove to be expensive and a waste of resources.</p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Queueing and Load Balancing<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§queueing-and-load-balancing" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/queueing-and-load-balancing" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p><span>In addition to the read replica solution above, read requests can be</span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147056244/load-balancing"> load-balanced</a><span> across multiple read replicas.</span></p><p><span>On the other hand, if a sudden spike in traffic causes the hot shard, if the system allows, write requests can be </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147056244/queueing-requests">queued</a><span> to allow the system some buffer.</span></p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Control the Traffic<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§control-the-traffic" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/control-the-traffic" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p><span>To avoid surprises, the system's anticipated load should be calculated in advance, and capacity should be allocated based on that, along with some extra buffer for regular spikes. Mechanisms such as </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/how-to-solve-producer-consumer-problem">backpressure</a><span>, etc., can be used to control input traffic.</span></p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Degraded Mode<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§degraded-mode" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/degraded-mode" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p>In this scenario, the system can focus on requests with higher priority and drop, queue, or rate limit the requests with lower priority. This will allow the system to reduce the load and continue operating in a degraded mode. For example, in degraded mode, an email application can prioritize sending emails over showing whether the user is online.</p><div class="captioned-image-container"><figure><a target="_blank" href="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png" data-component-name="Image2ToDOM" class="image-link image2 is-viewable-img can-restack"><div class="image2-inset"><picture><source type="image/webp" srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 1456w" sizes="100vw"/><img src="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png" width="1456" height="733" data-attrs="{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":733,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":219591,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":true,"topImage":false,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}" alt srcset="https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 1456w" sizes="100vw" loading="lazy" class="sizing-normal"/></picture><div class="image-link-expand"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset"><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image"><svg aria-hidden="true" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 20 20" fill="none" stroke-width="1.5" stroke="var(--color-fg-primary)" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><g><path d="M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex="0" type="button" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2"><polyline points="15 3 21 3 21 9"></polyline><polyline points="9 21 3 21 3 15"></polyline><line x1="21" x2="14" y1="3" y2="10"></line><line x1="3" x2="10" y1="21" y2="14"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class="image-caption">Fig. Degraded mode</figcaption></figure></div><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Move Hot Keys<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§move-hot-keys" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/move-hot-keys" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p><span>One ideal solution is to distribute the hotkeys across different shards to distribute the load uniformly. The hotkey can also be moved to its own shard if needed. However, adding a new shard can cause another set of </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/148600431/what-if-a-server-goes-down-or-a-new-one-is-added">problems</a><span>. Approaches like </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/148600431/what-is-consistent-hashing">consistency hashing</a><span> can allow adding a new shard with minimal impact on the existing data organization.</span></p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Choose the Right Sharding Key and Algorithm<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§choose-the-right-sharding-key-and-algorithm" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/choose-the-right-sharding-key-and-algorithm" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p><span>The sharding key is core to partitioning and distributing data across shards. A sharding key should allow for many possible distinct values (high cardinality), with each value having a similar probability of occurrence, allowing for a uniform data distribution. The application's query pattern should also be considered when selecting the sharding key to avoid/reduce cross-shard data access. Similarly, using a sharding algorithm, such as </span><a href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/148600431/what-is-consistent-hashing">consistency hashing</a><span> etc., that has a low probability of conflicts or collisions and allows for changes in data distribution, can be helpful.</span></p><h4 class="header-anchor-post">Monitor the Cluster<div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-alignItems-center pc-position-absolute pc-reset header-anchor-parent"><div class="pencraft pc-display-contents pc-reset pubTheme-yiXxQA"><div id="§monitor-the-cluster" class="pencraft pc-reset header-anchor offset-top"></div><button tabindex="0" type="button" aria-label="Link" data-href="https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/154310217/monitor-the-cluster" class="pencraft pc-reset pencraft iconButton-mq_Et5 iconButtonBase-dJGHgN buttonBase-GK1x3M buttonStyle-r7yGCK size_sm-G3LciD priority_secondary-S63h9o"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" viewBox="0 0 24 24" fill="none" stroke="currentColor" stroke-width="2" stroke-linecap="round" stroke-linejoin="round" class="lucide lucide-link"><path d="M10 13a5 5 0 0 0 7.54.54l3-3a5 5 0 0 0-7.07-7.07l-1.72 1.71"></path><path d="M14 11a5 5 0 0 0-7.54-.54l-3 3a5 5 0 0 0 7.07 7.07l1.71-1.71"></path></svg></button></div></div></h4><p>Set up metrics to monitor spikes in latency, disk reads, CPU utilization, etc., to ensure the existing sharding strategy works correctly and detect any anomalies promptly.</p><div><hr/></div><p><em>If you enjoyed this article, please hit the ❤️ like button.</em></p><p><em>If you think someone else will benefit from this, then please 🔁 share this post.</em></p></div></div><div class="visibility-check"></div></div><div class="post-footer"><div class="pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-16 pc-paddingTop-16 pc-paddingBottom-16 pc-justifyContent-space-between pc-alignItems-center pc-reset flex-grow-rzmknG border-top-detail-themed-k9TZAY border-bottom-detail-themed-Ua9186 post-ufi"><div 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data-attrs=\\\"{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/fa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":1029,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":245119,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":false,"topImage":true,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}\\\" class=\\\"sizing-normal\\\" alt=\\\"\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!UxnT!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2Ffa50847b-d1a5-4546-bac3-b6ebb7d96cc3_2554x1805.png 1456w\\\" sizes=\\\"100vw\\\" fetchpriority=\\\"high\\\"></picture><div class=\\\"image-link-expand\\\"><div class=\\\"pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset\\\"><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image\\\"><svg aria-hidden=\\\"true\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 20 20\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke-width=\\\"1.5\\\" stroke=\\\"var(--color-fg-primary)\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\"><g><path d=\\\"M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882\\\"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image\\\"><svg xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 24 24\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke=\\\"currentColor\\\" stroke-width=\\\"2\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" class=\\\"lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2\\\"><polyline points=\\\"15 3 21 3 21 9\\\"></polyline><polyline points=\\\"9 21 3 21 3 15\\\"></polyline><line x1=\\\"21\\\" x2=\\\"14\\\" y1=\\\"3\\\" y2=\\\"10\\\"></line><line x1=\\\"3\\\" x2=\\\"10\\\" y1=\\\"21\\\" y2=\\\"14\\\"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class=\\\"image-caption\\\">Fig. Sharding</figcaption></figure></div><h2>What is Hot Shard Problem?</h2><p>Once data is sharded to multiple nodes, there can be scenarios such as <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/how-to-handle-sudden-bursts-of-traffic\\\">thundering herd problem</a> or co-location of high throughput accounts, where most read or write requests are on the same shard. This can lead to the following situations:</p><ul><li><p><strong>Memory Saturation: </strong>The impacted shard will run out of RAM to hold the warmed data. To address this, RAM will start paging the data in the memory to the disk. Reading that data will require pulling those pages back from the disk to the memory. This to-and-fro from the memory to the disk and vice versa will impact the overall read and write performance of the shard, which will end up creating a backlog of requests or, even worse, making the shard unresponsive.</p></li><li><p><strong>CPU Saturation: </strong>If the read or write queries are compute-intensive, there may be a backlog of requests as the CPU needs time to complete a single query. In a single-threaded system, it may even end up spending more time on context switching between different tasks than on the tasks themselves.</p></li><li><p><strong>Network Saturation: </strong>A node's bandwidth is also a limited resource. It can be exhausted if the amount of data requested from the node exceeds its network bandwidth capacity.</p></li></ul><p>This scenario of a shard's resource saturation resulting in a backlog of requests is often referred to as <em>a Hot Shard or a Hot Partition </em>or <em>a Hot Key Problem.</em></p><div class=\\\"captioned-image-container\\\"><figure><a class=\\\"image-link image2 is-viewable-img\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" href=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png\\\" data-component-name=\\\"Image2ToDOM\\\"><div class=\\\"image2-inset\\\"><picture><source type=\\\"image/webp\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1456w\\\" sizes=\\\"100vw\\\"><img src=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png\\\" width=\\\"1456\\\" height=\\\"994\\\" data-attrs=\\\"{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":994,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":163142,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":false,"topImage":false,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}\\\" class=\\\"sizing-normal\\\" alt=\\\"\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!JC0o!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F60ca424e-5dd9-453c-a646-0de4c83d0a91_2249x1536.png 1456w\\\" sizes=\\\"100vw\\\"></picture><div class=\\\"image-link-expand\\\"><div class=\\\"pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset\\\"><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image\\\"><svg aria-hidden=\\\"true\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 20 20\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke-width=\\\"1.5\\\" stroke=\\\"var(--color-fg-primary)\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\"><g><path d=\\\"M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882\\\"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image\\\"><svg xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 24 24\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke=\\\"currentColor\\\" stroke-width=\\\"2\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" class=\\\"lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2\\\"><polyline points=\\\"15 3 21 3 21 9\\\"></polyline><polyline points=\\\"9 21 3 21 3 15\\\"></polyline><line x1=\\\"21\\\" x2=\\\"14\\\" y1=\\\"3\\\" y2=\\\"10\\\"></line><line x1=\\\"3\\\" x2=\\\"10\\\" y1=\\\"21\\\" y2=\\\"14\\\"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class=\\\"image-caption\\\">Fig. Hot Shard Problem</figcaption></figure></div><h2>How to Handle the Situation?</h2><p>Some of the approaches to handle the <em>Hot Shard Problem:</em></p><h4>Scale Vertically</h4><p>One obvious solution is to increase the node's size by allocating more resources to it. This vertical scaling may not prove to be an ideal solution in the long term, but it can help mitigate the problem.</p><h4>Use Read Replicas or Cache</h4><p>In a scenario where the hot sharding issue is caused by the read queries, using a <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147731225/cache-eviction-strategies\\\">cache</a> may be helpful in a scenario where the query response doesn't change. In situations where the cache doesn't help, and all reads and writes are being served through the primary node, having separate<a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/single-leader-multi-leader-and-leaderless\\\"> read replicas</a> for the primary node will free up the primary node by distributing the read load across read replicas. This approach may or may not experience eventual consistency based on the<a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/146489166/consistency-and-consistency-model\\\"> consistency model</a> applied to the system.</p><div class=\\\"captioned-image-container\\\"><figure><a class=\\\"image-link image2 is-viewable-img\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" href=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png\\\" data-component-name=\\\"Image2ToDOM\\\"><div class=\\\"image2-inset\\\"><picture><source type=\\\"image/webp\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_848,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1272,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1456w\\\" sizes=\\\"100vw\\\"><img src=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png\\\" width=\\\"1456\\\" height=\\\"1226\\\" data-attrs=\\\"{"src":"https://substack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com/public/images/6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png","srcNoWatermark":null,"fullscreen":null,"imageSize":null,"height":1226,"width":1456,"resizeWidth":null,"bytes":222311,"alt":null,"title":null,"type":"image/png","href":null,"belowTheFold":true,"topImage":false,"internalRedirect":null,"isProcessing":false,"align":null,"offset":false}\\\" class=\\\"sizing-normal\\\" alt=\\\"\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_424,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 424w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_848,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 848w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1272,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1272w, https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!S56X!,w_1456,c_limit,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F6eca2994-bc9b-4b7c-a873-312b2a278fe6_2320x1954.png 1456w\\\" sizes=\\\"100vw\\\" loading=\\\"lazy\\\"></picture><div class=\\\"image-link-expand\\\"><div class=\\\"pencraft pc-display-flex pc-gap-8 pc-reset\\\"><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container restack-image\\\"><svg aria-hidden=\\\"true\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 20 20\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke-width=\\\"1.5\\\" stroke=\\\"var(--color-fg-primary)\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\"><g><path d=\\\"M2.53001 7.81595C3.49179 4.73911 6.43281 2.5 9.91173 2.5C13.1684 2.5 15.9537 4.46214 17.0852 7.23684L17.6179 8.67647M17.6179 8.67647L18.5002 4.26471M17.6179 8.67647L13.6473 6.91176M17.4995 12.1841C16.5378 15.2609 13.5967 17.5 10.1178 17.5C6.86118 17.5 4.07589 15.5379 2.94432 12.7632L2.41165 11.3235M2.41165 11.3235L1.5293 15.7353M2.41165 11.3235L6.38224 13.0882\\\"></path></g></svg></button><button tabindex=\\\"0\\\" type=\\\"button\\\" class=\\\"pencraft pc-reset pencraft icon-container view-image\\\"><svg xmlns=\\\"http://www.w3.org/2000/svg\\\" width=\\\"20\\\" height=\\\"20\\\" viewBox=\\\"0 0 24 24\\\" fill=\\\"none\\\" stroke=\\\"currentColor\\\" stroke-width=\\\"2\\\" stroke-linecap=\\\"round\\\" stroke-linejoin=\\\"round\\\" class=\\\"lucide lucide-maximize2 lucide-maximize-2\\\"><polyline points=\\\"15 3 21 3 21 9\\\"></polyline><polyline points=\\\"9 21 3 21 3 15\\\"></polyline><line x1=\\\"21\\\" x2=\\\"14\\\" y1=\\\"3\\\" y2=\\\"10\\\"></line><line x1=\\\"3\\\" x2=\\\"10\\\" y1=\\\"21\\\" y2=\\\"14\\\"></line></svg></button></div></div></div></a><figcaption class=\\\"image-caption\\\">Fig. Use read replicas to read</figcaption></figure></div><h4>Use a Large Number of Nodes from the Start</h4><p>This solution may not last longer if the application is experiencing exponential growth. Allocating a large number of extra nodes at the start may also prove to be expensive and a waste of resources.</p><h4>Queueing and Load Balancing</h4><p>In addition to the read replica solution above, read requests can be<a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147056244/load-balancing\\\"> load-balanced</a> across multiple read replicas.</p><p>On the other hand, if a sudden spike in traffic causes the hot shard, if the system allows, write requests can be <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/147056244/queueing-requests\\\">queued</a> to allow the system some buffer.</p><h4>Control the Traffic</h4><p>To avoid surprises, the system's anticipated load should be calculated in advance, and capacity should be allocated based on that, along with some extra buffer for regular spikes. Mechanisms such as <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/p/how-to-solve-producer-consumer-problem\\\">backpressure</a>, etc., can be used to control input traffic.</p><h4>Degraded Mode</h4><p>In this scenario, the system can focus on requests with higher priority and drop, queue, or rate limit the requests with lower priority. This will allow the system to reduce the load and continue operating in a degraded mode. For example, in degraded mode, an email application can prioritize sending emails over showing whether the user is online.</p><div class=\\\"captioned-image-container\\\"><figure><a class=\\\"image-link image2 is-viewable-img\\\" target=\\\"_blank\\\" href=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,f_auto,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png\\\" data-component-name=\\\"Image2ToDOM\\\"><div class=\\\"image2-inset\\\"><picture><source type=\\\"image/webp\\\" srcset=\\\"https://substackcdn.com/image/fetch/$s_!yf1o!,w_424,c_limit,f_webp,q_auto:good,fl_progressive:steep/https%3A%2F%2Fsubstack-post-media.s3.amazonaws.com%2Fpublic%2Fimages%2F18cf3fb6-bbc6-4d0f-ac7b-68d27004727b_2633x1326.png 424w, 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The hotkey can also be moved to its own shard if needed. However, adding a new shard can cause another set of <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/148600431/what-if-a-server-goes-down-or-a-new-one-is-added\\\">problems</a>. Approaches like <a href=\\\"https://newsletter.scalablethread.com/i/148600431/what-is-consistent-hashing\\\">consistency hashing</a> can allow adding a new shard with minimal impact on the existing data organization.</p><h4>Choose the Right Sharding Key and Algorithm</h4><p>The sharding key is core to partitioning and distributing data across shards. A sharding key should allow for many possible distinct values (high cardinality), with each value having a similar probability of occurrence, allowing for a uniform data distribution. The application's query pattern should also be considered when selecting the sharding key to avoid/reduce cross-shard data access. 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